Stories Behind Words of Emotions: Ways to Assess the 1076 Kyivan Literary Monument in Contemporary Ukrainian and English Translations

Summary: The author discusses emotion terms through the prism of interlingual and intralingual translation. The prototype analysis applied expands the lexicographic interpretation of emotion terms by involving the reader’s psychological experience. The model of a sociological analysis of emotions by J.E. Stets and J.H. Turner reveals how dictionaries influence users’ mentality, and what is the correlation of the semantic features described in the dictionary and those present in the original. The presented descriptive criteria will stimulate approaches in search of guidelines for further evaluative interpretation and of emotion terms.


INTRODUCTION
The study of emotional speech overwhelms in papers dedicated to the emotional aspects of communicative acts, pragmatics and semasiology.The emotional component of lexical meaning has been discussed and perhaps overdiscussed.The issue of naming emotions, however, has enjoyed much less attention.
The reason for this status quo lies in the broad understanding of emotional lexis which can be triple: "Human emotions are verbalized by the language in three ways: emotions may be named, described or expressed by the language"1 .The third dimension is purely stylistic and incorporates a huge range of a language's means for stylistic expressiveness, boosted even by non-verbal means: "prosody, phonation or gestures (mimics, pantomime) which usually accompany verbal emotions" 2 .This wide interpretation has shifted the focus of attention from the nominalization of emotions to the connotative components of meaning.
The nominalistic approach to the study of emotions has a rich tradition in philosophy, psychology and anthropology, while in translation studies research is still scarce.The common nature of emotions is considered dual: some are universal, while the others are culture-specific, but it is generally believed that any source-language emotion can be interpreted in terms of the target language 3 .

EMOTION TERMS AND TOOLS FOR ANALYZING THEM
The basic principle for understanding emotions as a linguistically manifested token can be formulated as "emotions are one of the ways for reflecting reality, […] being a complicated product of spiritual and cognitive activities by a human" 4 .In the act of communication, emotions may maintain non-conflict dialogue or generate conflict interaction.From the viewpoint of temporally distant texts, this communication is complicated more and more: "Emotionality is a temporal category; thus, it is changeable.This feature should be taken into account when the literary texts of the past are reprinted" 5 .

PROS AND CONS OF DISSECTING EMOTIONS
In N. Orlova's views, speech realizations of emotions ("emotional acts") incorporate the following mandatory components: 1) the name of an emotion; 2) a reference to the subject of the emotion; 3) the cause of the emotion; 4) the object of the emotion; 5) an intonation pattern expressing this emotion 6 .In the textual analysis, psychological parameters of emotional states are usually interpreted from the lexicographical perspective overlapping a researcher's personal experience.They cannot be measured otherwise; thus, psychological interpretation is overtaken by psychological reconstruction.This psychological reconstruction is never fully objective as there are no easily visible means for tracing medieval psychological states.Thus, a translator offers again only a subjective interpretation motivated by linguistic proof, personal experience and literary taste, but the ontological essence of this interpretation is still partly dubious.

THE 1076 TEXT AND ITS TRANSLATORS
The text for this case study is an excerpt under the title "Слово нhкоего отьця къ сыну своему, словеса душепользьная" ("A Certain Father's Words to His Son for Profit to His Soul") from the collection "Izbornyk of Sviatoslav of 1076", whose manuscript was compiled by an unknown monk named Ioan of Kyiv during the reign of Prince Sviatoslav II Yaroslavych (1073-1076).This synaxarion contains general moral instructions, aphorisms, and interpretations of the Holy Scripture.
The first translation of the excerpt under study into contemporary Ukrainian was done but not completed by the prominent Ukrainian writer and thinker Ivan Franko (1856-1916).The exact date of the translation is unknown because I. Franko never published it.For the first time, it was published in 1925, when M. Vozniak found it in Franko's archives.This very translation is incorporated into the text of Franko's paper "From our Ancestor's Literature of the 11 th century" 7 .

U M C S
The comparison of Franko's and Yaremenko's texts shows that the latter translation is based on parts of the former.
The English-language translation was prepared by William Robert Veder in 1994.Prof. Veder is an expert in Slavonic linguistics and text studies; he has taught at Utrecht, Nijmegen and Amsterdam.After having retired from Amsterdam University (2003), he continues his research and is actively engaged in identifying Slavonic texts originally written in Glagolitic.

EMOTIONS IN KYIVAN RUS
The range of emotion terms testifies to the conscious, rich emotional life of medieval Ukrainians.The quoted piece clearly demonstrates that the presence of synonymic emotional concepts experience is a sign of the well-balanced system of emotional experience.Unfortunately, the emotions of the Kyivan Rus era is likely to have been unstudied in Ukrainian, Slavonic and World linguistics.In her dissertation, O.D. Tarasova enthusiastically supported the method of back translation as the one for finding the equivalence between emotion terms in cross-cultural communication9 .In the author's opinion, the most promising and valuable results of this approach will be achieved in sci-tech, error analysis and computer translation as well as it can contribute to the study of semantic features motivated by a nation's ethnopsychology10 .Strange as it may sound, but the researcher refers to its novelty (naming it 'the method of reversing'), though the idea of back-translation has a long history of studying and possesses a number of weak points.One is that the dictionaries are a poor source of information, and "they offer many choices for one word and it is not always easy to know which term to use in any given case"11 .
Another disputable issue is: how can we perform this analysis if there are no bilingual and bilateral dictionaries of Old Ukrainian/Rus/Russian?Old Greek and Latin commentaries often used in professional literature are not usually taken into account.
An experiment comparing two contemporary languages -Ukrainian and English -is based on two bilingual dictionaries, published in the Anglophone world and in Ukraine12 .The comparing of dictionary entries has provided the following matrix for analytical operations.The results of this analytical operation do look dubious and disputable.The choice of words is more like a lottery than a context-motivated option.It can just bring some attention to some semantic connections and relations.Thus, the interpretative outcome of this matrix can be triple.
First, the correspondence between Ukrainian and English lexemes is lexicographically undisputable in the cases of the pairs зітхання -sighing, страх -fear Pobrane z czasopisma Annales N -Educatio Nova http://educatio.annales.umcs.plData: 15/09/2023 08:50:16 U M C S and плач -weep.Nevertheless, it should be reasserted that this correspondence is rather superficial.The logic of interlingual similarity is motivated by the process of a language user's identical cognitive experience: our external behavior interacts with internal feelings.This is the reason that зітхання -sighing and плач -weep can be considered emotion terms in certain contexts.Besides, we may face a problem when what is an emotion state in one language can be a process in another; this will make impossible the common ground for correspondence.
Second, the broken circle of correspondence in the pairs утіха -comfort and засумованість -sadness does not elucidate the weak points of lexico graphical practices nor does it motivate the translator's choice.Initially, the lexemes in the two languages cannot claim equivalence, but in the texts discussed, they do.
Third, the synonymic clusters are not systematized and explicated.The dictionaries do not offer any corpus-based approach to motivate the stable usage of equivalents.Thus, the clusters of the offered contextual equivalents оутhха -вgсgли~ -радость, утіха -веселість -радість and comfort -merriment -happiness -cheerfulness -joy are not aligned in parallel, but they are more like random equivalents.Similarly, back-translation cannot help to confirm the relations among synonyms and equivalents in the clusters пgч'ль -скърбь, скорбота -жальтуга -горювання -стурбованість -сум -смуток and pine -sullenness -grief.The number of related emotion words shows the fuzziness of this semantic field.
These contemplations lead us to various schemes for analysing emotion terms from different angles.

CONSTRUCTING PROTOTYPICAL SCENARIOS: УТІХА VS. COMFORT
The Academic Dictionary of Ukrainian introduces a cross-reference between the lexemes утіха and радість which does not discriminate these two concepts 13 .The basic difference may lie in the nature of these emotions: радість is a pure state without other causative and temporal relations, while утіха is the same state but caused by an agent, an object or an event.
The Oxford English Dictionary provides scarce definitions for the mediaeval senses of comfort and more expanded explanations in its more recently used senses 14 .We observe an interesting semantic development from a hypothetically simplistic state of satisfaction to a psychological state involving enjoyment, mental relief, and consolation as acts of cause and result.
13 SUM: Slovnyk ukrayinskoyi movy, Kyiv 1970Kyiv -1980: vol. 10, p. 513;: vol. 10, p. 513;vol. 8, p. 436. 14  The prototypical scenarios, applied for analyzing emotion terms by A. Wierzbicka15 , resembles the value of oppositional analysis for Translation Studies: the analysis reveals the basic feature of both lexemes by comparing them, and this feature should be equivalent in both original contexts.However, the reason why words do matter cannot be described clearly, or completely.The translation practitioner can ground his/her judgements on this approach as it shows the directionality of his/her strategies and the common background of cultural climate, but the translation analyst requires more criteria in order to sustain the statistical objectivity 16 of his/her analytical operations.Another trouble for an analyst who is not initiated in prototype theory is the visual and experiential ambiguity of interpretation.
The emotions are described via the vicious circles of cross-referencing, so any language user has to apply his/her psychological experience.Thus, the possible prototypical scenarios for утіха and comfort can be reconstructed in the following way (the samples of scenarios are borrowed from C. The correlation between the hypothesized prototypical scenarios and the lexicographic entries is not harmonized on all levels: the scenarios represent a personal feeling more, and the entry covers all the relations between the subject, the object and the event.
This means that in the texts, interpretation will be strongly experience-motivated.The idea of comforting a person is recorded only once in the literary monument.
… and they will comfort you… 20 181920 The dictionaries do not provide exact features of psychological states.Thus, a reader has to overlap the offered information with his/her own psychological condition.This operation is even necessary while reading the dictionary entries: the reader is to modify his/her psychological response under certain conditions.So, what we face here is our subjective experience, thus, every interpretation will be objectively dubious as we do not operate the defined psychological criteria.We conventionally believe that a person's response to a psychological challenge is identical in the whole community.
That is why we believe that events and things can bring us some psychological tranquility, but the depth of this emotion is not proved linguistically, so the equivalence will be vague from the viewpoint of analytical sections, but appropriate from the viewpoint of general essence.The general essence of the utterance makes us vaguely perceive the real emotional state, but strongly believe in its reality.

EMOTIONS LIKE SOCIAL PRACTICES: TEXTUAL BEHAVIOUR FOR JOY AND HAPPINESS
A sociocultural tool for assessing the translation of emotion terms have been discussed in emotion research.This implies a great deal of linguistic information selected according to various criteria and covering different genres of speech.It is apparent that the semantic nature of emotional lexemes is interpreted from 18 Izbornik 1076, Moskva 1965, p. 177. 19Zolote slovo: khrestomatiya…, vol. 1, p. 379. 20The Edificatory Prose of Kievan Rus', Harvard 1994, p. 7.
Pobrane z czasopisma Annales N -Educatio Nova http://educatio.annales.umcs.plData: 15/09/2023 08:50:16 U M C S the viewpoint of a wide range of relations with actuality, probability, social relations; besides emotions may be equal to judgements, and then they become part of these judgements 21 .
The corpus-driven study is very much welcome, but it should be constructed according to the distinctive guidelines motivated by the specific features of texts under analysis.Thus, applying the model of a sociological analysis of emotions as summarized by J.E. Stets and J.H. Turner 22 for medieval texts faces the problem of covering all the aspects demanded by the model.For instance, interactive aspects of emotions (role playing, forms of talk, use of propositions and expressive gestures) cannot be completely described on the basis of medieval textual data.Similarly, studying emotions as part of social structures focuses on the life of different communities, and it is not always relevant (or possible) for a text analyst.The analyst's task is to scrutinize a given context and its values, while a community's social views of emotions can be studied only from a group of texts.
These considerations lead us to taking only three parts of the sociological description of emotions:  d) feeling and display rules.This scheme allows one to apply 11 criteria which can be extended in interpretations and commentaries.These are guidelines for the analyst to follow while studying any text with a view to emotions.
In our case study, a specific -seemingly exaggerated -attention concentrates on Christianity which looks like the fundamental theme in Ukraine's and England's 21 Y.M. Volf, Funktsionalnaya semantika otsenki, 2-ye izd., dop., Moskva 2002, pp. 217-219. 22 J.E.The choice of the equivalents is successful: the Old Ukrainian and English lexemes coincide.The difference between the Old and New Ukrainian notions is motivated by the bigger openness of contemporary notions.The case of lost associations in the New Ukrainian lexeme does not mean that these associations are impossible in relevant contexts.Similarly, the English lexeme was used in relevant religious contexts, but in contemporary social life, the associations will not be religion-limited, and the secularizing level is generally much higher than in the Middle Ages.The choice of the Ukrainian equivalent is motivated by its origin, despite the historical change of its semantic content.Meanwhile, the English target lexemes compete for the interpretation of the original, offering various perspectives of its ontological essence.Thus, merriment is out-centered emotion, approaching more a festivity than a psychological status of insideness.The Old Ukrainian emotion радость is not so overtly acting, and it has rather two senses: one is calm like comfort; another is a festivity and exaltation.
We should question the purity of the experiment: how can the scarcity of lexicographical quotes influence (or even manipulate) the analyst in his/her wish to find the same criteria?Similarly, dictionaries influence users' mentality, so the outcome can be qualified as identical as described in the dictionary and presented in the original.The dictionary will not distort the target text, but will guarantee its correct understanding.
These are not full-fledged criteria, but rather a set of guidelines for further evaluative interpretation.From the statistical viewpoint, they represent the semantic correlation of corresponding texts sufficiently.
In the contemporary Ukrainian concept, associations are absent as presented by the Academic dictionary of Ukrainian 23 .The reason is that the dictionary was compiled in the epoch of official atheism, and Christian references and associations objectively faded.Nowadays, in the society of religious freedom, Ukrainian speakers may already feel some religious -but not exactly Christian (after the period of state atheism) -associations.Meanwhile, it may also be explained by the specific range of existing texts that defined the ways of thinking.Maybe, if the secular literature had been more developed, we could have made judgements about the wider spectrum of emotional associations, but the limited range of written genres may objectively testify to the limited ways of world perception.

CONCEPTUAL MODELING FOR EMOTIONS: ПGЧ'ЛЬ AND СКЪРБЬ
In common practice, some people may think as in L. Tolstoy's saying from Anna Karenina: "Happy families are all alike; every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way" 24 .So, happy emotions are alike, but sad emotions are unique and numerous.It is not the author's task to prove that people are unhappier than happier, because they think and write more about sad emotions.Some prevalence of negative emotion terms, however, is evident.
A conceptual analysis aims at "reconstructing a notion" connected with a term, a thing or an event, including the analysis of the whole class along with transitive states and fuzzy cases 25 .A model for such a reconstruction of emotions on the basis of texts was suggested by L.A. Antypenko which has three parts and combines eight criteria for section 26 : 23 SUM: Slovnyk ukrayinskoyi movy, 11 vols., Kyiv 1970-1980: vol. 8, p. 436. 24 Translated by Constance Black Garnett (1862-1946)  Emotions are enumerated in order to create some gradation of psychological states, but due to their laconicity, the very contexts of the original are not helpful for deciphering the essence of these emotions.

CONCLUSIONS
The main difficulty in the study of emotion terms is the scarcity of their lexicographic presentation.The entries are based on cross-referencing neighbouring emotions that make the dictionary user apply his/her psychological experience whose relevancy cannot be proven.Due to the subtle nature of emotions, the compilers of dictionaries did not try to extract minimal semantic components to construct a balanced system of relations among emotions.For this reason, the studies of emotions are usually experience-oriented and corpus-based.There is no other way to judge emotions in the 11 th -century texts except for analysing their usage in other texts/contexts and relying on the logic of our psychological drives.
The analysis of back translation has testified that it cannot suggest as a reliable means of semantic section, though it can be applied as a preparatory stage for considering a specific lexical and semantic field.This tool fails to motivate the findings of the section.The use of prototype scenarios requires specific preparations for the description of cognitive states, but in general, it manages to identify the major semantic component of a lexeme, on which the information structure of the entire fragment depends.
Besides, emotion terms stand for emotional experience which is unavoidably reduced to these terms not only in the mediaeval contexts, but also in behaviours reflected by current texts.We approach subjectivity -in a way, objectified subjectivity -as the main rule of contemporary translators and critics.The fundamental analytical tool, which is analytical introspection in our case, will be partially subjective in the search for a proper synonym.The general opinion that the essence of translation is to render the meaning of linguistic units does not take into account the complexity of the semantic description of the word, which has already been discovered by numerous analytical techniques.The study of emotion terms is even more complicated, because they stimulate the analyst and the reader to pay attention first of all to their own experiences, but not to the parameters which can be empirically considered to be the same for the whole community.Therefore, the socio-cultural context becomes crucial for establishing both the truthfulness of understanding the original and its correspondence in intercultural communication.
1. Cognitive appraisal: a) general definitions of self/other(s)/situations, b) attributions for the causes behind situations, c) awareness of one's place in the social structure, d) recognition of cultural guidelines.2. Emotional arousal: a) positive/negative, b) a cognitive assessment, c) knowledge of the relevant cultural guidelines.3. Culture: a) emotion ideologies (appropriate response in different situations), b) emotional experiences, c) emotion vocabularies, of Emotions: Ways to Assess the 1076 Kyivan Literary Monument… 187
Goddard 17 ): Stories Behind Words of Emotions: Ways to Assess the 1076 Kyivan Literary Monument… 183 because of this, this person feels something good X feels like this Stets, J.H. Turner, The Sociology of Emotions, [in:] Handbook ofEmotions, New York- London 2008, p. 33.mediaeval texts, though the contemporary reader/user would not be inclined to focus so much on the Christian worldview.This may also be true of a common mediaeval illiterate speaker, but literate people were definitely Christianity-centred.

Table 1 .
Ukrainian sad emotions (as extracted from SUM)

Table 2 .
English sad emotions (as extracted from CEOED)