Employment as a Part of Rehabilitation: A Review of Similarities and Differences between Female and Male Criminals

Joanna Felczak

Abstract


In this review article, the latest knowledge in the area of the importance of employment in the process of rehabilitation is presented. The goal is a literature review and an analysis of the similarities and differences between female and male criminals in the context of employment during the prison sentence and the chances of finding employment after release. Also, the relationships between employment and later recidivism are analyzed. To present the relationship between employment and recidivism holistically, the following points were referred to: the role of work in rehabilitation and adaptation to freedom; differences between males and females in employment experiences and peculiarities in social background affecting their labour force attachment; the employment of prisoners before, during and after punishment; opportunities and barriers in finding a job by former prisoners; bidirectional relationship – employment as a way to reintegrate ex-offender with the society and as a way to prevent recidivism. Different phases of rehabilitation (being in prison, leaving prison) were distinguished and labour force attachment prior to imprisonment spell were also discussed. Also, the article consists of a discussion section where conclusions and recommendations are presented. The indications for further research were also listed, one of which is to examine the real benefit of the work of convicts – whether it provides the possibility of subsistence. In the article, study results from various countries, and consequently, various judicial systems, are referred to.


Keywords


employment; recidivism; female offenders; male offenders; social exclusion; social reintegration

Full Text:

PDF

References


LITERATURE

Arbour W., Lacroix G., Marchand S., Prison Rehabilitation Programs: Efficiency and Targeting, “IZA Discussion Paper” 2021, no. 14022, DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3762892.

Baumer E., Levels and Predictors of Recidivism: The Malta Experience, “Criminology” 1997, vol. 35(4), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1997.tb01232.x.

Benda B.B., Harm N.J., Toombs N.J., Survival Analysis of Recidivism of Male and Female Boot Camp Graduates Using Life-Course Theory, “Journal of Offender Rehabilitation” 2005, vol. 40(3–4), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v40n03_05.

Berg M.T., Huebner B.M., Reentry and the Ties That Bind: An Examination of Social Ties, Employment, and Recidivism, “Justice Quarterly” 2011, vol. 28(2), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2010.498383.

Bhuller M., Dahl G.B., Løken K.V., Mogstad M., Incarceration, Recidivism, and Employment, “NHH Dept. of Economics Discussion Paper” 2018, no. 14, DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3205006.

Bollinger C.R., Yelowitz A., Targeting Intensive Job Assistance to Ex-Offenders by the Nature of Offense: Results from a Randomized Control Trial, “IZA Discussion Paper” 2021, no. 14078, DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3775983.

Boyce C., Wood A.M., Daly M., Sedikides C., Personality Change Following Unemployment, “Journal of Applied Psychology” 2015, vol. 100(4), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038647.

Burke L., Vivian J., The Effect of College Programming on Recidivism Rates at the Hampden County House of Correction: A 5-Year Study, “Journal of Correctional Education” 2001, vol. 52(4).

Campaniello N., Women in Crime, “IZA World of Labor” 2019, vol. 105, DOI: https://doi.org/10.15185/izawol.105.v2.

D’Alessio S.J., Stolzenberg L., Eitle D., “Last Hired, First Fired”: The Effect of the Unemployment Rate on the Probability of Repeat Offending, “American Journal of Criminal Justice” 2014, vol. 39, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-013-9199-1.

Durose M., Cooper A., Snyder H., Recidivism of Prisoners Released in 30 States in 2005: Patterns from 2005 to 2010, Washington 2014.

Ehrlich I., Participation in Illegitimate Activities: A Theoretical and Empirical Investigation, “Journal of Political Economy” 1973, vol. 81(3), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/260058.

Erickson J.R., Risk Factors for Criminal Recidivism in Female Offenders, Philadelphia 2014 (unpublished MA thesis).

Ervasti H., Venetoklis T., Unemployment and Subjective Well-being: An Empirical Test of Deprivation Theory, Incentive Paradigm and Financial Strain Approach, “Acta Sociologica” 2010, vol. 53(2), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0001699310365624.

Fallesen P., Geerdsen L.P., Imai S., Tranæs T., The Effect of Active Labor Market Policies on Crime: Incapacitation and Program Effects, “Labour Economics” 2018, vol. 52, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2018.03.002.

Finn P., Job Placement for Offenders in Relation to Recidivism, “Journal of Offender Rehabilitation” 1998, vol. 28(1–2), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v28n01_06.

Galbiati R., Ouss A., Philippe A., Jobs, News and Re-offending after Incarceration, “Toulouse School of Economics Working Paper” 2017, no. 17-843.

Gorbanescu A., Female Recidivism Prediction, “Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences” 2013, vol. 78, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.04.248.

Greiner L.E., Law M.A., Brown S.L., Using Dynamic Factors to Predict Recidivism among Women: A Four-Wave Prospective Study, “Criminal Justice and Behavior” 2015, vol. 42(5), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854814553222.

Grogger J., Market Wages and Youth Crime, “Journal of Labor Economics” 1998, vol. 16(4), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/209905.

Harlow C., Education and Correctional Populations, Washington 2003.

Harrison B., Schehr R.C., Offenders and Post-Release Jobs: Variables Influencing Success and Failure, “Journal of Offender Rehabilitation” 2004, vol. 39(3), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v39n03_03.

Henderson M., Employment and Crime: What Is the Problem and What Can Be Done about It from the Inmate’s Perspective, “Corrections Management Quarterly” 2001, vol. 5(4).

Holzer H., Raphael S., Stoll M., Will Employers Hire Former Offenders? Employer Preferences, Background Checks, and Their Determinants, [in:] Imprisoning America: The Social Effects of Mass Incarceration, eds. M. Pattillo, D. Weiman, B. Western, New York 2004.

Horney J., Osgood D.W., Marshall I.H., Criminal Careers in the Short-Term: Intra-Individual Variability in Crime and Its Relation to Local Life Circumstances, “American Sociological Review” 1995, vol. 60(5), DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2096316.

Huebner B.M., DeJong C., Cobbina J., Women Coming Home: Long‐Term Patterns of Recidivism, “Justice Quarterly” 2010, vol. 27(2), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07418820902870486.

Hunter B., Borland J., Does Crime Affect Employment Status? The Case of Indigenous Australians, “Economica” 2000, vol. 67(265), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0335.00199.

Kacprzak A., Kudlińska I., Praca socjalna z osobami opuszczającymi placówki resocjalizacyjne i ich rodzinami, Warszawa 2014.

Kang T., The Transition to Adulthood of Contemporary Delinquent Adolescents, “Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology” 2019, vol. 5, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40865-019-00115-6.

Kleck G., Jackson D., What Kind of Joblessness Affects Crime? A National Case – Control Study of Serious Property Crime, “Journal of Quantitative Criminology” 2016, vol. 32, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-016-9282-0.

Lageson S., Uggen C., How Work Affects Crime – and Crime Affects Work – Over the Life Course, [in:] Handbook of Life-Course Criminology: Emerging Trends and Directions for Future Research, ed. C.L. Gibson, New York 2013, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5113-6_12.

Langan P.A., Levin D.J., Recidivism of Prisoners Released in 1994, “Federal Sentencing Reporter” 2002, vol. 15(1), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/fsr.2002.15.1.58.

Laub J.H., Sampson R.J., Shared Beginnings, Divergent Lives: Delinquent Boys to Age 70, Cambridge 2003.

Lockwood S., Nally J.M., Ho T., Knutson K., The Effect of Correctional Education on Postrelease Employment and Recidivism: A 5-Year Follow-Up Study in the State of Indiana, “Crime and Delinquency” 2012, vol. 58(3), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128712441695.

Makarios M., Steiner B., Travis L., Examining the Predictors of Recidivism Among Men and Women Released from Prison in Ohio, “Criminal Justice and Behavior” 2010, vol. 37(12), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854810382876.

Maruna S., Toch H., The Impact of Imprisonment on the Desistance Process, [in:] Prisoner Reentry and Crime in America, eds. J. Travis, C. Visher, Cambridge 2005, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511813580.006.

Mears D., Cochran J., Bales W., Gender Differences in the Effects of Prison on Recidivism, “Journal of Criminal Justice” 2012, vol. 40(5), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2012.06.009.

Nally J.M., Lockwood S., Ho T., Knutson K., Post-Release Recidivism and Employment among Different Types of Released Offenders: A 5-Year Follow-up Study in the United States, “International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences” 2014, vol. 9(1).

Nielsen A.L., Testing Sampson and Laub’s Life Course Theory: Age, Race/Ethnicity, and Drunkenness, “Deviant Behavior” 1999, vol. 20(2), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/016396299266533.

Nuttall J., Hollmen L., Staley M., The Effect of Earning a GED on Recidivism Rates, “Journal of Correctional Education” 2003, vol. 54(3).

Pager D., Marked: Race, Crime, and Finding Work in an Era of Mass Incarceration, Chicago 2007, DOI: https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226644851.001.0001.

Paul K.I., Moser K., Unemployment Impairs Mental Health: Meta-analysis, “Journal of Vocational Behaviour” 2009, vol. 74(3), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2009.01.001.

Petersilia J., From Cell to Society: Who Is Returning Home?, [in:] Prisoner Reentry and Crime in America, eds. J. Travis, C. Visher, Cambridge 2005, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511813580.002.

Petersilia J., When Prisoners Come Home, New York 2003.

Piquero A., Brame R., Mazerolle P., Haapanen R., Crime in Emerging Adulthood, “Criminology” 2002, vol. 40(1), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2002.tb00952.x.

Ramakers A., Nieuwbeerta P., Wilsem J.V., Dirkzwager A., Not Just Any Job Will Do: A Study on Employment Characteristics and Recidivism Risks After Release, “International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology” 2017, vol. 61(16), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X16636141.

Raphael S., Incarceration and Prisoner Reentry in the United States, “The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science” 2011, vol. 635(1), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716210393321.

Raphael S., Weiman D.F., The Impact of Local Labor Market Conditions on the Likelihood That Parolees Are Returned to Custody, [in:] Barriers to Reentry? The Labor Market for Released Prisoners in Post-Industrial America, eds. S. Bushway, M. Stoll, D. Weiman, New York 2007.

Sampson R.J., Laub J.H., Crime and Deviance over the Life Course: The Salience of Adult Social Bonds, “American Sociological Review” 1990, vol. 55(5), DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2095859.

Sampson R.J., Laub J.H., Structural Variations in Juvenile Court Processing: Inequality, the Underclass, and Social Control, “Law and Society Review” 1993, vol. 27(2), DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3053938.

Schnappauf E.M., DiDonato T.E., From Solitary to Solidarity: Belonging, Social Support, and the Problem of Women’s Recidivism, “Modern Psychological Studies” 2017, vol. 23(1).

Schnepel K., Do Post-Prison Job Opportunities Reduce Recidivism?, “IZA World of Labor” 2017, vol. 399, DOI: https://doi.org/10.15185/izawol.399.

Schnepel K., Economics of Incarceration, “Australian Economic Review” 2016, vol. 49(4), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8462.12187.

Schnepel K., Good Jobs and Recidivism, University of Sydney, School of Economics, “Economics Working Paper Series” 2014, no. 2014-10.

Skardhamar T., Inmates’ Social Background and Living Conditions, “Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention” 2003, vol. 4(1), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14043850310012314.

Skardhamar T., Telle K., Post-release Employment and Recidivism in Norway, “Journal of Quantitative Criminology” 2012, vol. 28(4), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-012-9166-x.

Spjeldnes S., Goodkind S., Gender Differences and Offender Reentry: A Review of the Literature, “Journal of Offender Rehabilitation” 2009, vol. 48(4), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10509670902850812.

Strickland C.D., Recidivism Levels, Unemployment Programs, and the Effects on Different Characteristics of Criminal Offenders, Iowa State University 2018, DOI: https://doi.org/10.31274/etd-180810-6103.

Travis J., But They All Come Back: Facing the Challenges of Prisoner Reentry, Washington 2005.

Tripodi S.J., Kim J.S., Bender K., Is Employment Associated with Reduced Recidivism? The Complex Relationship Between Employment and Crime, “International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology” 2010, vol. 54(5), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X09342980.

Uggen C., Staff J., Work as a Turning Point for Criminal Offenders Corrections, “Management Quarterly” 2001, vol. 5(4).

Uggen C., Wakefield S., What Have We Learned from Longitudinal Studies of Work and Crime?, [in:] The Long View of Crime: A Synthesis of Longitudinal Research, ed. A.M. Liberman, New York 2008, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-71165-2_6.

Uggen C., Wakefield S., Western B., Work and Family Perspectives on Reentry, [in:] Prisoner Reentry and Crime in America, eds. J. Travis, C. Visher, Cambridge 2005, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511813580.008.

Valentine E.J., Redcross C., Transitional Jobs After Release from Prison: Effects on Employment and Recidivism, “IZA Journal of Labor Policy” 2015 (December), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40173-015-0043-8.

Verbruggen J., Blokland A.A.J., Geest V.R. van der, Effects of Employment and Unemployment on Serious Offending in a High-Risk Sample of Men and Women from Ages 18 to 32 in the Netherlands, “The British Journal of Criminology” 2012, vol. 52(5), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azs023.

Visher C., Debus S., Yahner J., Employment After Prison: A Longitudinal Study of Releases in Three States, Washington 2008.

Visher C., Lattimore P., Major Study Examines Prisoners and Their Reentry Needs, “National Institute of Justice Journal” 2007, no. 258.

Visher C., Travis J., Life on the Outside: Returning Home after Incarceration, “The Prison Journal” 2011, vol. 91(3, Suppl.), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0032885511415228.

Visher C., Travis J., Transitions from Prison to Community: Understanding Individual Pathways, “Annual Review of Sociology” 2003, vol. 29(1), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.095931.

Visher C., Winterfield L., Coggeshall M., Ex-Offender Employment Programs and Recidivism: A Meta-Analysis, “Journal of Experimental Criminology” 2005, vol. 1, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-005-8127-x.

Wadsworth T., The Meaning of Work: Conceptualizing the Deterrent Effect of Employment on Crime among Young Adults, “Sociological Perspectives” 2006, vol. 49(3), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/sop.2006.49.3.343.

Walmsley R., World Prison Population List (11th ed.), Institute for Criminal Policy Research (ICPR) 2016.

Warr M., Life-Course Transitions and Desistance from Crime, “Criminology” 1998, vol. 36(2), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1998.tb01246.x.

Wartna B.S.J. et al., Recidivism Report 2002–2008: Trends in the Reconviction Rate of Dutch Offenders, Factsheet 2011-5a, The Netherlands 2011.

Weiman D., Stoll M., Bushway S., The Regime of Mass Incarceration: A Labor Market Perspective, [in:] Barriers to Reentry? The Labor Market for Released Prisoners in Post-Industrial America, eds. S. Bushway, M. Stoll, D. Weiman, New York 2007.

Western B., From Prison to Work: A Proposal for a National Prisoner Reentry Program, “Discussion Paper 2008-16”, The Hamilton Project, The Brookings Institution, Washington 2008.

Western B., Punishment and Inequality in America, New York 2006.

Western B., Kling J., Weiman D., The Labor Market Consequences of Incarceration, “Crime and Delinquency” 2001, vol. 47(3), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128701047003007.

Wilson D.B., Gallagher C.A., MacKenzie D.L., A Meta-Analysis of Correction-Based Education, Vocation, and Work Programs for Adult Offenders, “Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency” 2000, vol. 37(4), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427800037004001.

Winkelmann R., Unemployment, Social Capital, and Subjective Well-Being, “Journal of Happiness Studies” 2009, vol. 10(4), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-008-9097-2.

Yang C. S., Local Labor Markets and Criminal Recidivism, “Journal of Public Economics” 2017, vol. 147, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2016.12.003.

Yukhnenko D., Sridhar S., Fazel S., A Systematic Review of Criminal Recidivism Rates Worldwide: 3-Year Update, “Wellcome Open Research” 2019, DOI: https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.14970.1.

Zamble E., Quinsley V.L., The Criminal Recidivism Process, Cambridge 1997, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511527579.

ONLINE SOURCES

Botello C.M., Women’s Imprisonment and Recidivism: An Illustrative Analysis of Boronia Women’s Pre-Release Centre (Western Australia) and Progressive/Open Prison Systems in Norway and Sweden (Master of Philosophy School of Arts and Sciences), University of Notre Dame Australia 2017, https://researchonline.nd.edu.au/theses/172 (access: 28.11.2023).

Couloute L., Kopf D., Unemployment among Formerly Incarcerated People, 2018, https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/outofwork.html (access: 28.11.2023).

Covington S., Woman’s Journey Home: Challenges for Female Offenders and Their Children (NCJ 205853), Washington 2002, http://webarchive.urban.org/publications/410630.html (access: 28.11.2023).

Deschenes E.P., Owen B., Crow J., Recidivism Among Female Prisoners: Secondary Analysis of the 1994 BJS Recidivism Data Set, 2006, https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/216950.pdf (access: 28.11.2023).

deVuono-powell S., Schweidler C., Walters A., Zohrabi A., Who Pays? The True Cost of Incarceration on Families, September 2015, https://ellabakercenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Who-Pays-exec-summary.pdf (access: 28.11.2023).

Erbe J.M., Spirituality: The Effects on Female Inmates and Recidivism, 2004, https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3698&context=etd-project (access: 28.11.2023).

Hamlyn B., Lewis D., Women Prisoners: A Survey of Their Work and Training Experiences in Custody and On Release, 2000, https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED469935 (access: 28.11.2023).

Looney A., Turner N., Work and Opportunity Before and After Incarceration, March 2018, https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/es_20180314_looneyincarceration_final.pdf (access: 28.11.2023).

McMillin H., Process and Outcome Evaluation of the Spokane County Meth Family Treatment Court, 2003–2005, Washington 2007 (unpublished doctoral dissertation), https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download;jsessionid=1DB5943607B889E1493D9D70B89E6946?doi=10.1.1.629.9758&rep=rep1&type=pdf (access: 28.11.2023).

Ministerstwo Sprawiedliwości, Powrotność do przestępstwa w latach 2009–2015, Warszawa 2017, https://isws.ms.gov.pl/pl/baza-statystyczna/publikacje/download,3502,13.html (access: 28.11.2023).

National Institute of Justice, Measuring Recidivism, 2014, http://www.nij.gov/topics/corrections/recidivism/Pages/measuring.aspx (access: 28.11.2023).

National Resource Center on Justice Involved Women, Fact Sheet on Justice Involved Women in 2016, https://cjinvolvedwomen.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Fact-Sheet.pdf (access: 28.11.2023).

Ortiz N.R., The Gendering of Criminal Stigma: An Experiment Testing the Effects of Race/Ethnicity and Incarceration on Women’s Entry-Level Job Prospects, 2014, https://keep.lib.asu.edu/system/files/c7/113894/Ortiz_asu_0010E_13792.pdf (access: 28.11.2023).

Piacentini L., Weaver B., Jardine C., Employment and Employability in Scottish Prisons: A Research Briefing Paper, February 2018, https://www.sccjr.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Research_Briefing_Prisons_Employability.pdf (access: 28.11.2023).

Prison Reform Trust, Working It Out: Employment for Women Offenders, January 2015, https://prisonreformtrust.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Employmentbriefing.pdf (access: 28.11.2023).

Ramirez R., Reentry Considerations for Justice Involved Women, 2010, https://cjinvolvedwomen.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Reentry-Considerations-for-Justice-Involved-Women-FINAL.pdf (access: 28.11.2023).

Swavola E., Riley K., Subramanian R., Overlooked: Women and Jails in an Era of Reform, 2016, https://www.safetyandjusticechallenge.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/overlooked-women-in-jails-report-web.pdf (access: 28.11.2023).

Taryn N.F., The Effect of Education Programs on Prisoner Recidivism in Michigan, 2010, https://www.nmu.edu/sites/DrupalEducation/files/UserFiles/Files/Pre-Drupal/SiteSections/Students/GradPapers/Projects/Nelson_Taryn_MP.pdf (access: 28.1.2023).

Thailand Institute of Justice, The Rehabilitation and Social Reintegration of Women Prisoners: Implementation of the Bangkok Rules, 2019, https://cdn.penalreform.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/PRI_Rehabilitation-of-women-prisoners_WEB.pdf (access: 28.11.2023).

Visher C., Kachnowski V., Finding Work on the Outside: Results from the “Returning Home” Project in Chicago, Washington 2007, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292865328_Finding_work_on_the_outside_Results_from_the_returning_home_project_in_Chicago (access: 28.11.2023).

Visher C., La Vigne N., Travis J., Returning Home: Understanding the Challenges of Prisoner Reentry. Maryland Pilot Study: Findings from Baltimore, 2004, https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/42841/410974-Returning-Home-Understanding-the-Challenges-of-Prisoner-Reentry.PDF (access: 28.11.2023).

Walmsley R., World Female Imprisonment List: Women and Girls in Penal Institutions, Including Pre-trial Detainees/Remand Prisoners, 2018, https://www.prisonstudies.org/sites/default/files/resources/downloads/women-prison-list-2006.pdf (access: 28.11.2023).

Women’s Breakout, Women’s Breakout Merger into Clinks, 2017, https://womensbreakout.org.uk/about-womens-breakout/key-facts (access: 28.11.2023).

World Population Review, Recidivism Rates by Country, 2021, https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/recidivism-rates-by-country (access: 28.11.2023).

Zanella G., Prison Work and Convict Rehabilitation, IZA DP no. 13446, July 2020, https://docs.iza.org/dp13446.pdf (access: 28.11.2023).




DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17951/sil.2023.32.5.77-104
Date of publication: 2023-12-31 14:29:19
Date of submission: 2021-04-13 11:48:35


Statistics


Total abstract view - 317
Downloads (from 2020-06-17) - PDF - 0

Indicators



Refbacks

  • There are currently no refbacks.


Copyright (c) 2023 Joanna Felczak

Creative Commons License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.